Kenya’s growing role as a hub for outsourced digital labour has drawn workers from across Africa with promises of opportunity in the global tech economy. Recruiters advertise roles in “AI work”, “content moderation”, “data annotation” or “administrative support” for international technology companies.
Yet these jobs are not always as they seem, as openDemocracy’s latest investigation has revealed. Workers told us that they or their colleagues were recruited to Kenya to work in customer service or receptionist roles at Teleperformance, a French outsourcing company whose clients include Big Tech firms, before being made to moderate extreme content on TikTok – in some cases, without valid work permits.
Teleperformance denied using fake jobs to recruit content moderators, saying that throughout “all stages of the interview and hiring process at TP in Kenya, employees are clearly briefed on their job specifications”. It also denied that some employees do not have permits to work in Kenya.
But the Oversight Lab Africa, a legal advocacy organisation focused on building a fair digital future, believes our findings are part of a troubling pattern of deception, opacity and structural vulnerability across the digital labour market. It believes these practices carry the hallmarks of modern labour trafficking.
The organisation has found that tech companies lure people across borders with promises of opportunity, only to find themselves in tightly controlled working environments where immigration status, finances and psychological well-being are used to keep them compliant.
While accountability through the courts remains critical, prevention is equally important. Workers need clear information about the warning signs of exploitative recruitment and the steps they can take to protect themselves.
If you see an opportunity offering digital work, AI training, or a tech job abroad, this guide is for you. Read it carefully. These are some of the warning signs workers and labour rights experts say to look out for.
1. Deceptive recruitment and misrepresentation of jobs
One of the most common entry points into exploitation is deceptive recruitment.
Many job advertisements have carefully crafted promises of “digital work”, “AI work”, “content moderation”, “translation”, or “administrative roles”. The descriptions are intentionally vague, and candidates are often pressured to make quick decisions, particularly where international relocation is involved.
Critical details about the true employer, the nature of the work, or the working conditions may be withheld until the individual is already financially or emotionally committed. In many cases, workers only discover the reality after they have resigned from a previous job, relocated to another country, or incurred debt in their moving costs.
Sometimes the job is described as simple and routine, only for workers to later discover that it involves reviewing traumatic content or performing tasks that are far more complex and psychologically demanding than disclosed.
Candidates may also be subjected to multiple interviews or so-called “resilience tests” that have no clear connection to the role, but appear designed to assess how much distress someone can tolerate rather than whether they are suited for the job.
Warning signs during recruitment include:
- Being offered one role verbally or on paper, but told after arrival that you will be doing a completely different job.
- Vague job descriptions that remain unclear even late into the recruitment process.
- Being asked to travel on a tourist visa, ETA, or short-term pass for what is described as a full-time job.
- Promises that “documentation will be sorted later”.
In some cases, workers are told they will be doing simple administrative work, only to discover the role involves moderating graphic or traumatic online content.
2. Immigration status used as a control mechanism
Another recurring pattern involves workers being employed without proper documentation, which can become a powerful tool of control.
Workers may be relocated without the correct documents, issued with the wrong type of visa, or kept in prolonged uncertainty about their work permits.
Contracts, where they exist, may be short-term or presented as “training” arrangements despite full-time labour being performed.
Workers are often given verbal assurances that permits are being processed, while documentation is repeatedly delayed. In some cases, employers withhold passports, making workers even more vulnerable.
Many workers are housed in employer-controlled accommodation, sometimes with restrictions on their movement. Some report being hidden during immigration inspections or instructed to misrepresent the purpose of their stay.
In these situations, fear of arrest, detention or deportation can become a mechanism to silence complaints and discourage workers from leaving.
Key warning signs include:
- Being asked to travel for work without a confirmed work permit.
- Employers controlling, delaying or withholding documentation.
- Being discouraged from contacting immigration officials, labour authorities, or your embassy.
- Employers holding passports or restricting movement.
- Being instructed to misrepresent the purpose of your stay during immigration inspections.
3. Exploitative conditions after employment begins
The cycle of exploitation does not necessarily end once employment begins. Employers operating in this space often rely on weak labour enforcement and the vulnerability of migrant workers.
Workers may be required to work overtime without pay, subjected to unexplained salary deductions, and denied statutory leave.
Occupational health protections, particularly critical in high-risk digital roles, are often absent. Sexual harassment policies and grievance mechanisms may not exist, leaving workers with few avenues for reporting abuse.
Workers may also be denied sick leave, even where the work has a clear psychological impact.
Common warning signs include:
- Long or irregular shifts in tightly monitored 24-hour operations.
- Overtime work without pay.
- Salary deductions for housing, transport or services that were promised as free.
- Being paid less than originally agreed.
- Lack of clear payslips or transparency about tax, pension or health insurance contributions.
- Exposure to traumatic material without adequate, confidential mental health support.
These conditions often persist because workers feel unable to challenge them. Many have already relocated abroad, resigned from previous jobs, or taken on debt in order to accept the opportunity.
What to do if you feel trapped or undocumented
Workers who believe they may be in an exploitative situation should seek independent advice as early as possible. Under Kenyan law, working without a permit is illegal, but the primary responsibility for securing work authorisation lies with the employer.
Practical steps include:
Keep records
- Save copies of job offers, contracts and recruitment messages.
- Keep payslips or proof of payment.
- Document any communication about visas or permits.
Seek independent support
- Contact labour rights organisations or anti-trafficking groups.
- Reach out to legal aid providers.
- Contact your country’s embassy or high commission.
Threats, intimidation or restrictions on movement may constitute coercion or labour trafficking even where no physical force is used.
Building a fair digital future
Africa’s digital transformation holds enormous promise. But the future of digital work on the continent must not be built on secrecy, coercion or exploitation.
Workers deserve transparency about who they work for, what work they are doing, and what protections apply to them.
At The Oversight Lab Africa, the team continues to work with communities to challenge exploitative practices through strategic litigation while equipping workers with the knowledge needed to identify and resist abuse.
If you suspect you are currently in an exploitative working environment, you can reach out confidentially through the organisation’s contact form or contact their Community Support Officer, Musa Abubakar, via WhatsApp or Signal on +254 119 811 112.
A fair digital economy must be grounded not only in innovation, but in transparency, accountability and respect for human dignity.
